Grammar - English
Teme: 1a) Grammar - part 1:
1b) Grammar - part 2:
1c) Idioms
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1a) Grammar - part 1:
Topic 1 - Nouns
What is a Noun?
The simplest definition of a noun is a thing and nouns are the basic building blocks of sentences.
These things can represent a person, animal, place, idea, emotion – almost any thing that you can think of.
Dog, Sam, we, love, phone, Chicago, courage and spaceship are all nouns. The more nouns you know in a
language, the better you will be able to communicate your ideas. Here, we’ll take a closer look at what makes
a noun a noun, and we’ll provide some examples of how nouns are used.
Noun examples: respect, faith, apple, seashore, peanut, motorcycle
Noun examples in the following sentences are in bold for easy identification.
- The boy and girl were holding hands as they crossed the bridge to on the way to town.
- I love watching my cat play with the pink yarn.
- It is raining! Everyone, grab your umbrella and rain hat and watch out for the puddles!
Categories of Nouns
There are several categories of nouns, and there can be an overlap across the categories. For example,
there are common and proper nouns, and concrete and abstract nouns, yet some nouns are both concrete
and common, or concrete and proper. It will become clear as you read on.
Common nouns are the words that refer to most general things: country, evening, laughter, puppy, umbrella
Common noun examples in the following sentences are in bold for easy identification.
- Cathy loves the weekends in the country.
- We enjoy swimming after breakfast.
- The cup fell and broke.
Proper nouns are the name that identifies someone or something, a person or a place. Proper nouns are
capitalized. John is a proper noun, since the word John represents a particular, single example of a thing, John.
Proper noun examples: Mary, Jimmy, Aunt Audrey, Honda, Philadelphia
Proper noun examples in the following sentences are in bold for easy identification.
- Emily loved spending time with her Aunt Nancy in Paris.
- Buick and Jeep are two important carmakers.
- We visited Lake Erie, which separates the United States and Canada.
Concrete nouns represent a thing that is real and tangible: pig, person, rock, smell, air, soup, Larry are
all concrete nouns.
Concrete noun examples: cup, computer, diamond, rollercoaster, shampoo, Debby
Concrete noun examples in the following sentences are in bold for easy identification.
- The person threw the rock across the yard.
- My dog, Oreo, jumped in the air and caught the ball!
- Can you smell the soup, John?
An abstract noun represents a thing that is more like a concept or idea: love, integrity, democracy, friendship,
beauty, knowledge are examples of abstract nouns.
Abstract noun examples in the following sentences are in bold for easy identification.
- Love and friendship are equally important.
- Beauty is in the eye of the beholder.
- Your mind can know a million things.
Nouns can also be categorized as countable or uncountable.
A countable noun is a thing can be numbered or counted: airplane, sock, bowl, noodle, teacher, as in
two airplanes, three socks, 1000 noodles.
Countable noun examples: peach, horse, shirt, telescope
Countable noun examples in the following sentences are in bold for easy identification.
- There are five dogs in the street.
- I bought three tons of coal.
- Margaret has six pairs of blue sandals.
Uncountable nouns can have a quantity or amount but cannot be actually counted: water, music, clothes,
understanding. In the second example above, tons is a countable noun, but coal is not. Coal is referred to
as an uncountable noun.
Uncountable noun examples: hate, confidence, attractiveness, wisdom
Uncountable noun examples in the following sentences are in bold for easy identification.
- Love is in the air.
- The four elements are air, earth, fire and water.
- Her humor knows no bounds.
Collective nouns refer to a group of people or things: audience, team, bunch, family, class.
When speaking of collective nouns, Americans consider them as singular, using singular verbs
with them, such as the group dances happily. When speaking British English, both singular
verbs and plural verbs might be used, as in the group dance crazily before the Queen.
Collective noun examples: government, jury, team, bunch, school, class, and room
(the people in the room or building)
Collective noun examples in the following sentences are in bold for easy identification.
- The team threw confetti when it was over.
- Steve buys the band some sandwiches.
- Meredith told the class she was getting married.
As mentioned above, when we talk of categories of nouns, some nouns can be described as
being in more than one category. Some nouns are concrete and countable, for example,
such as raindrops and wedding rings, while some are proper and uncountable, such as the
Atlantic Ocean and Alaska.
Forms of Nouns
The same noun can appear in different forms, depending on how it is used.
A countable noun can be singular or plural. Most nouns in English form the plural by
adding -s or -es to the noun, although there are some exceptions:
- One dog, two dogs, red dog, blue dog.
- I missed not just one bus today, but two buses.
- New York City is one of the grandest cities in the world.
Uncountable nouns and proper nouns are always considered to be singular:
- The air in the countryside and in the city is clean and fresh (not the airs).
- All knowledge is a good thing (not knowledges).
- Florida has mostly warm weather in the winter.
Nouns can also indicate ownership. This form of a noun is called a possessive noun,
and is indicated by an apostrophe and the letter –s. It is equivalent to using the word of and the noun.
- The light’s color is red. (or: The color of the light is red.)
- The country’s flag has blue stripes. (or: The flag of the country has blue stripes.)
- The hunters’ guns were loaded. (or: The guns of the hunters were loaded.)
Note that when the noun already ends with -s, possession is indicated by adding only an
apostrophe – hunters’ guns, not hunters’s guns.
A noun can be used as the subject of a sentence, or in another capacity as an object:
- John is nice. – John is the subject of the sentence
- I saw John – John is the simple (direct) object of the sentence.
- I gave John the phone. – John is the indirect object of the sentence.
- I gave the phone to John. – John is the object of the preposition to.
Additional Info About Nouns
Sometimes nouns are used as adjectives, which is referred to as a noun adjunct. In fact,
English is amazingly flexible in that almost any noun can also be used as an adjective,
though sometimes the use is considered comical or slangy:
- Ocean view – Ocean describes the type of view you would see outside your window.
- Jazz concert – Jazz is specifying what kind of concert is being played.
- Cheese omelet – It’s a certain type of omelet, eggs with cheese. Using a true adjective as in a cheesy omelet means any type of omelet (onion and peppers, mushroom) that has a lot of cheese.
- Dog tired – Really really tired – even though dogs aren’t known to be especially tired.
- Fear Factor – An example of using just any old word as a noun adjunct.
Plural-Only Nouns
There is a small group of
nouns that exist only in the plural form, for example:- clothes, pants, scissors, shorts, thanks, trousers
These nouns do not exist in the singular form and are usually described as "plural-only nouns".
We use them with plural verbs and plural pronouns, for example:
- My trousers are dirty. I need to wash them.
We cannot use them with numbers.
Plural-Only Nouns with Two Parts
Many plural-only nouns are tools or items of clothing that have two parts (like trousers, which have two legs).
Clothing
- panties, boxers, briefs, tights
- jeans, pants, pyjamas, shorts, trousers
Tools
- headphones
- pliers, scissors, tongs, tweezers
- binoculars, glasses, goggles, RayBans, sunglasses
pair of
Because the above examples have two parts, we can refer to them as "pair of" or
"pairs of" to quantify them.
To talk about one item we can say a pair of, one pair of, my pair of, this pair of etc.
To specify more than one item we can say two pairs of, three pairs of etc.
- I need a new pair of sunglasses.
- You can get rid of that old pair of headphones.
- I'd like to buy one pair of boxers and two pairs of jeans.
glass, glasses (countable noun): a container for drinking from. I'd like two glasses of
glass (uncountable noun): transparent material used for windows, screens etc. Be careful
Other Plural-Only Nouns
- earnings
- belongings, clothes
- congratulations, thanks
- outskirts, premises, surroundings
In these example sentences notice the use of plural verbs and plural pronouns:
- Make sure your belongings are tagged with your name before you check them in.
- Her thanks were clearly sincere.
- If your clothes are wet you can dry them upstairs.
- The outskirts of Washington are really pretty and they stretch for miles.
Compound Nouns
A compound noun is a noun that is made with two or more words. A compound noun is usually
[noun + noun] or [adjective + noun], but there are other combinations (see below). It is important
to understand and recognize compound nouns. Each compound noun acts as a single unit and
can be modified by adjectives and other nouns.
There are three forms for compound nouns:
- open or spaced - space between words (tennis shoe)
- hyphenated - hyphen between words (six-pack)
- closed or solid - no space or hyphen between words (bedroom)
Here are some examples of compound nouns:
noun | + | noun | bus stop | Is this the bus stop for the number 12 bus? |
---|---|---|---|---|
fire-fly | In the tropics you can see fire-flies at night. | |||
football | Shall we play football today? | |||
adjective | + | noun | full moon | I always feel crazy at full moon. |
blackboard | Clean the blackboard please. | |||
software | I can't install this software on my PC. | |||
verb(-ing) | + | noun | breakfast | We always eat breakfast at 8am. |
washing machine | Put the clothes in the red washing machine. | |||
swimming pool | What a beautiful swimming pool! | |||
noun | + | verb(-ing) | sunrise | I like to get up at sunrise. |
haircut | You need a haircut. | |||
train-spotting | His hobby is train-spotting. | |||
verb | + | preposition | check-out | Please remember that check-out is at 12 noon. |
noun | + | prepositional phrase | mother-in-law | My mother-in-law lives with us. |
preposition | + | noun | underworld | Do you think the police accept money from the underworld? |
noun | + | adjective | truckful | We need 10 truckfuls of bricks. |
Pronunciation
Compound nouns tend to have more stress on the first word. In the phrase "pink ball",
both words are equally stressed (as you know, adjectives and nouns are always stressed).
In the compound noun "golf ball", the first word is stressed more (even though both
words are nouns, and nouns are always stressed). Since "golf ball" is a compound noun
we consider it as a single noun and so it has a single main stress - on the first word. Stress
is important in compound nouns. For example, it helps us know if somebody said "a GREEN
HOUSE" (a house which is painted green) or "a GREENhouse" (a building made of glass for
growing plants inside).
British/American differences
Different varieties of English, and even different writers, may use the open, hyphenated or closed form
for the same compound noun. It is partly a matter of style. There are no definite rules. For example
we can find:
- container ship
- container-ship
- containership
If you are not sure which form to use, please check in a good dictionary.
Plural Forms of Compound Nouns
In general we make the plural of a compound noun by adding -s to the
"base word" (the most "significant" word). Look at these examples:
singular | plural |
---|---|
a tennis shoe | three tennis shoes |
one assistant headmaster | five assistant headmasters |
the sergeant major | some sergeants major |
a mother-in-law | two mothers-in-law |
an assistant secretary of state | three assistant secretaries of state |
my toothbrush | our toothbrushes |
a woman-doctor | four women-doctors |
a doctor of philosophy | two doctors of philosophy |
a passerby, a passer-by | two passersby, two passers-by |
Note that there is some variation with words like spoonful or truckful.
The old style was to say spoonsful or trucksful for the plural. Today it
is more usual to say spoonfuls or truckfuls. Both the old style (spoonsful)
and the new style (spoonfuls) are normally acceptable, but you should be
consistent in your choice. Here are some examples:
Some compound nouns have no obvious base word and you may need
to consult a dictionary to find the plural:
- higher-ups
- also-rans
- go-betweens
- has-beens
- good-for-nothings
- grown-ups
Note that with compound nouns made of [noun + noun] the first noun is like an adjective and therefore
does not usually take an -s. A tree that has apples has many apples, but we say an apple tree, not
apples tree; matchbox not matchesbox; toothbrush not teethbrush.
With compound nouns made of [noun + noun] the second noun takes an -s for plural. The first noun
acts like an adjective and as you know, adjectives in English are invariable. Look at
these examples:
long plural form becomes → | plural compound noun [noun + noun] |
---|---|
100 trees with apples | 100 apple trees |
1,000 cables for telephones | 1,000 telephone cables |
20 boxes for tools | 20 tool boxes |
10 stops for buses | 10 bus stops |
4,000 wheels for cars | 4,000 car wheels |
Topic 2: PREPOSITIONS
su male riječi koje najčešće stoje ispred imenice (nekada također ispred –ing oblika – gurand).
Svaka od propozicija može se prevesti na više načina zavisno od konteksta rečenice.
U tabeli se nalaze oblici od najćešće korištenih prepozicija:
Prepozicije za vrijeme:
Prijedlog: |
Kontekst u kojem se koristi: |
Primjer: |
on |
o danima u sedmici |
on Monday |
in |
o mjesecima / godišnjim dobima o dijelu dana (jutro, vecer) o određenom periodu vremena (kada?) |
in August / in winter in the morning in 2006 in an hour |
at |
o noći o vikendu o tačnom vremenskom periodu (u koliko?) |
at night at the weekend at half past nine |
since |
desilo se od određenog perioda vremena (od...) |
since 1980 |
for |
desilo se u prošlosti i dalje traje (već ...) |
for 2 years |
ago |
desilo se prije tačno određenog vremena |
2 years ago |
before |
prije nekog određenog vremena |
before 2004 |
to |
kada govorimo o vremenu |
ten to six (5:50) |
past |
kada govorimo o vremenu |
ten past six (6:10) |
to / till / until |
kada označavamo početak i kraj radnje |
from Monday to/till Friday |
till / until |
kada označavamo kada se nešto završilo |
He is on holiday until Friday. |
by |
kada označavamo kraj nečeg |
I will be back by 6 o’clock. |
Prepozicije za mjesto:
Prijedlog: |
Kontekst u kojem se koristi: |
Primjer: |
---|---|---|
in |
soba, zgrada, ulica, grad, država, knjiga, notes itd.. auta, taxi slika, svijet |
in the kitchen, in London in the book in the car, in a taxi in the picture, in the world |
at |
kao „do nečeg“, na nekom mjestu za stol za događaje mjesto gdje radiš ili ideš (kino, škola, posao itd..) |
at the door, at the station at the table at a concert, at the party at the cinema, at school, at work |
on |
mjesto događaja za mjesto na rijeci sinonimno „na nečemu“, mjesto za strane (desno, lijevo) za spratove u kući / zgradi za javni prevoz za TV, radio |
the picture on the wall London lies on the Thames. on the table on the left on the first floor on the bus, on a plane on TV, on the radio |
by, next to, beside |
desno ili lijevo od necega ili nekoga |
Jane is standing by / next to / beside the car. |
under |
na zemlji (podlozi) ispod (pokriveno) neke stvari. |
the bag is under the table |
below |
ispod neke stvari (al ne na zemlji / tlu) |
the fish are below the surface |
over |
iznad neke stvari |
put a jacket over your shirt over 16 years of age walk over the bridge climb over the wall |
above |
iznad neke stvari (ne direktno) |
a path above the lake |
across |
oko neke stvari (preko) |
walk across the bridge swim across the lake |
through |
kroz neku stvar |
drive through the tunnel |
to |
kretanje prema osobi, predmetu, gradu, državi itd. |
go to the cinema go to London / Ireland go to bed |
into |
ući u nesto (sobu, zgradu) |
go into the kitchen / the house |
towards |
kretati se pored neke stvari |
go 5 steps towards the house |
onto |
kretati se iznad neke stvari |
jump onto the table |
from |
sinonimno „odakle“.. |
a flower from the garden |
Ostale često korištene prepozicije:
Prijedlog: |
Kontekst u kojem se koristi: |
Primjer: |
---|---|---|
from |
od koga, odakle |
a present from Jane |
of |
dio neke stvari, neka stvar od neke |
a page of the book the picture of a palace |
by |
ko je autor, ko je kreirao |
a book by Mark Twain |
on |
za hodanje ili jahanje ulazak u vozilo za javni prevoz |
on foot, on horseback get on the bus |
in |
ulazak u auto / taxi |
get in the car |
off |
izlazak iz vozila za javni prevoz |
get off the train |
out of |
izlazak iz auta / taxi |
get out of the taxi |
by |
povećanje ili smanjenje za prevoz (autom, biciklom, autobusom.. sve osim hodanja ili jahanja) |
prices have risen by 10 percent by car, by bus |
at |
za godine |
she learned Russian at 45 |
about |
sinonimno „o nekoj stvari“ |
we were talking about you |
Prijedlozi za mjesto:
In: koristi se ako je nešto u zatvorenom ili širokom prostoru: in a room, in a building,
in a box, in a garden, in a town/country, in the city centre, in a pool, in the sea, in a river.
Primjeri:
– What have you got in your hand?
– When we were in Italy, we spent a few days in Venice.
– There were some people swimming in the pool.
At: koristi se ako je nešto u određenoj tački u prostoru: at the bus station, at the door,
at the window, at the roundabout, at reception:
– Do you know that man standing at the door?
– We have to get off the bus at the next stop.
– When you leave the hotel, please leave your key at reception.
On: koristi se za nešto što se nalazi na nekoj površini :on the ceiling, on the door, on the table,
on the floor, on the wall, on a page, on an island:
– Have you seen the notice on the notice board?
– The hotel is on a small island in the middle of the lake.
Uporedimo In i At:
There were a lot of people in the shop. but Go along this road, then turn left at the shop.
Poređenje In i On:
There is some water in the bottle. but There is a label on the bottle.
Poređenje At i On:
There is somebody at the door. Shall I go and see who it is?
There is a notice on the door. It says „ Do not disturb“.
Kažemo da je neko in hospital/in prison/in jail: Ann ‘s mother is in hospital. Ali kažemo da je neko at home/at work/
at school/at university/at college: Julia is studying chemistry at university.
In i at za zgrade
You can eat in a restaurant ili at a restaurant; You can buy something in a supermarket or at a supermarket.
At obično koristimo kada želimo da iskažemo gde se održava neki događaj: We went to a concert at the Royal Festival Hall.
Kažemo at the station/ at the airport:
Do not meet me at the station. I can get a taxi.
Kažemo at somebody’ s house ( kod nečije kuće):
I was at Sue’ s house last night. ili I was at Sue’ s last night.
In koristimo kada govorimo o samoj zgradi. Uporedimo:
We had dinner at the hotel. but All the rooms in the hotel have air conditioning.
In i at za gradove
Obično koristimo In za gradove i sela: The Louvre is a famous art museum in Paris.
Ali možemo koristiti at ili in kada mislimo o mestu kao o tački ili stanicu na putovanju:
Does this train stop at (or in) Nottingham?
On i in za vozila
Obično kažemo on a bus/on a train/on a plane/on a ship but in a car/in a taxi: The bus was very full.
There were too many people on it.Ali reći ćemo: Mary arrived in a taxi.
ESL practice -Mixed Prepositions (task 1):
1. Lucy is arriving ______ February the 13th _______ eight o'clock _____ the morning.
2. The weather in London is often terrible _______ January.
3. It's better to get taxi if you are out alone _______ night.
4. She got married __________ September.
5. They usuallly go ______ the south of France ______ the summer.
6. Columbus sailed to the Americas _______ the 16th century.
7. I graduated from university __________ 2001.
8. I usually go to my parents' house ____ Christmas. We eat turkey together
______ Christmas Day.
9. The train leaves __________ tomorrow morning __________ 8 am.
10. I like to drink tea ___________ in the afternoon.
11. We went out for dinner ______ last Wednesday.
12. She left London __________ the 4th of March.
13. We're meeting _______ lunchtime __________ next Thursday.
14. I swim ______ the pool ___ the LASC campus.
15. Will you drop me ___ my house _______ your way home?
16. Do you like to shop ___ Lucky's Supermarket?
17. We always put tomatoes ______ the salad?
18.What day were you born ___?
19. Crime has been ___ the increase recently.
20. He grabbed me ___ the arm.
21. Mr. Sherwood is staying ___ a hotel.
22. Many people are fond ___ music.
23. He spent all day worrying ___ his sick mother.
24. ___ all the days of the week, I enjoy Tuesday the most.
25. I only know him ___ name.
26. My aunt died ___ lung cancer.
27. Are you angry ___ me?
28. Do you go ______ school ______ foot or _____ bus?
29. A sudden illness prevented her ___ attending the meeting.
30. Please look ___ the blackboard.
31. I prefer coffee ___ tea.
32. He failed the test much ___ the disappointment of his par
33. This dictionary is ___ great use to me.
34. This picture reminds me ___ my childhood.
35. My father is now inquiring ___ the matter.
36. What were you aiming ___?
Topic 3: VERBS
Verbs are the most important part of a sentence. First of all,
we need to distinguish between main (glavni) and auxiliary
(pomoćni) verbs. Main verbs can stand alone. ( He came.
She went to the market. )
Auxiliary verbs are followed by another verb (main verb)
in order to form a question, a negative sentence, a compound tense
or the passive. We have 2 types of auxiliary verbs:
1) Primary auxiliary verbs (to be, to have, to do). They can be used
both as main verbs and as auxiliary verbs.
We are leaving tomorrow? (be - auxiliary)
We are happy. (be - main)
He does his work on time. (do - main)
Does he work in shifts? (do - auxiliary)
Have you ever been to Italy? (have - auxiliary)
I have a dog. (have - main)
2) Modal (auxiliary) verbs are used to express likelihood, ability,
permission and obligation. They are verbs that cannot be used on their own.
They need to be accompanied by another (main)verb.
Modal verbs: can, could, will, would, shall, should, may, might, must.....
Read more: https://engeuroblok.webnode.com/gramatika-1-razred/
Verbs are the most important part of a sentence. First of all, we need to distinguish between main (glavni) and auxiliary (pomoćni) verbs.
***Main verbs can stand alone. ( He came. She went to the market. )
*** Auxiliary verbs are followed by another verb (main verb) in order to form a question, a negative sentence, a compound tense
or the passive. We have 2 types of auxiliary verbs:
1) Primary auxiliary verbs (to be, to have, to do).
They can be used both as main verbs and as auxiliary verbs.
We are leaving tomorrow? (be - auxiliary)
We are happy. (be - main)
He does his work on time. (do - main)
Does he work in shifts? (do - auxiliary)
Have you ever been to Italy? (have - auxiliary)
I have a dog. (have - main)
2) Modal (auxiliary) verbs
are used to express likelihood, ability, permission and obligation. They are verbs that cannot be used on their own.
They need to be accompanied by another (main)verb.
Modal verbs: can, could, will, would, shall, should, may, might, must.....
Verbs are the most important part of a sentence. First of all,
we need to distinguish between main (glavni) and auxiliary
(pomoćni) verbs. Main verbs can stand alone. ( He came.
She went to the market. )
Auxiliary verbs are followed by another verb (main verb)
in order to form a question, a negative sentence, a compound tense
or the passive. We have 2 types of auxiliary verbs:
1) Primary auxiliary verbs (to be, to have, to do). They can be used
both as main verbs and as auxiliary verbs.
We are leaving tomorrow? (be - auxiliary)
We are happy. (be - main)
He does his work on time. (do - main)
Does he work in shifts? (do - auxiliary)
Have you ever been to Italy? (have - auxiliary)
I have a dog. (have - main)
2) Modal (auxiliary) verbs are used to express likelihood, ability,
permission and obligation. They are verbs that cannot be used on their own.
They need to be accompanied by another (main)verb.
Modal verbs: can, could, will, would, shall, should, may, might, must.....
Read more: https://engeuroblok.webnode.com/gramatika-1-razred/
Verbs are the most important part of a sentence. First of all,
we need to distinguish between main (glavni) and auxiliary
(pomoćni) verbs. Main verbs can stand alone. ( He came.
She went to the market. )
Auxiliary verbs are followed by another verb (main verb)
in order to form a question, a negative sentence, a compound tense
or the passive. We have 2 types of auxiliary verbs:
1) Primary auxiliary verbs (to be, to have, to do). They can be used
both as main verbs and as auxiliary verbs.
We are leaving tomorrow? (be - auxiliary)
We are happy. (be - main)
He does his work on time. (do - main)
Does he work in shifts? (do - auxiliary)
Have you ever been to Italy? (have - auxiliary)
I have a dog. (have - main)
2) Modal (auxiliary) verbs are used to express likelihood, ability,
permission and obligation. They are verbs that cannot be used on their own.
They need to be accompanied by another (main)verb.
Modal verbs: can, could, will, would, shall, should, may, might, must.....
Read more: https://engeuroblok.webnode.com/gramatika-1-razred/
Verbs are the most important part of a sentence. First of all,
we need to distinguish between main (glavni) and auxiliary
(pomoćni) verbs. Main verbs can stand alone. ( He came.
She went to the market. )
Auxiliary verbs are followed by another verb (main verb)
in order to form a question, a negative sentence, a compound tense
or the passive. We have 2 types of auxiliary verbs:
1) Primary auxiliary verbs (to be, to have, to do). They can be used
both as main verbs and as auxiliary verbs.
We are leaving tomorrow? (be - auxiliary)
We are happy. (be - main)
He does his work on time. (do - main)
Does he work in shifts? (do - auxiliary)
Have you ever been to Italy? (have - auxiliary)
I have a dog. (have - main)
2) Modal (auxiliary) verbs are used to express likelihood, ability,
permission and obligation. They are verbs that cannot be used on their own.
They need to be accompanied by another (main)verb.
Modal verbs: can, could, will, would, shall, should, may, might, must.....
Read more: https://engeuroblok.webnode.com/gramatika-1-razred/
Verbs are the most important part of a sentence. First of all,
we need to distinguish between main (glavni) and auxiliary
(pomoćni) verbs. Main verbs can stand alone. ( He came.
She went to the market. )
Auxiliary verbs are followed by another verb (main verb)
in order to form a question, a negative sentence, a compound tense
or the passive. We have 2 types of auxiliary verbs:
1) Primary auxiliary verbs (to be, to have, to do). They can be used
both as main verbs and as auxiliary verbs.
We are leaving tomorrow? (be - auxiliary)
We are happy. (be - main)
He does his work on time. (do - main)
Does he work in shifts? (do - auxiliary)
Have you ever been to Italy? (have - auxiliary)
I have a dog. (have - main)
2) Modal (auxiliary) verbs are used to express likelihood, ability,
permission and obligation. They are verbs that cannot be used on their own.
They need to be accompanied by another (main)verb.
Modal verbs: can, could, will, would, shall, should, may, might, must.....
Read more: https://engeuroblok.webnode.com/gramatika-1-razred/
Verbs are the most important part of a sentence. First of all,
we need to distinguish between main (glavni) and auxiliary
(pomoćni) verbs. Main verbs can stand alone. ( He came.
She went to the market. )
Auxiliary verbs are followed by another verb (main verb)
in order to form a question, a negative sentence, a compound tense
or the passive. We have 2 types of auxiliary verbs:
1) Primary auxiliary verbs (to be, to have, to do). They can be used
both as main verbs and as auxiliary verbs.
We are leaving tomorrow? (be - auxiliary)
We are happy. (be - main)
He does his work on time. (do - main)
Does he work in shifts? (do - auxiliary)
Have you ever been to Italy? (have - auxiliary)
I have a dog. (have - main)
2) Modal (auxiliary) verbs are used to express likelihood, ability,
permission and obligation. They are verbs that cannot be used on their own.
They need to be accompanied by another (main)verb.
Modal verbs: can, could, will, would, shall, should, may, might, must.....
Read more: https://engeuroblok.webnode.com/gramatika-1-razred/
Topic 3: Stative and Dynamic Verbs
Verbs in English can be classified into two categories: stative verbs and dynamic verbs. Dynamic verbs (sometimes referred to as "action verbs") usually describe actions we can take, or things that happen; stative verbs usually refer to a state or condition which is not changing or likely to change. The difference is important, because stative verbs cannot normally be used in the continuous (BE + ING) forms. This will explain the differences between the two types of verb, and give lots of examples of each kind.
Dynamic verbs
Dynamic verbs can be used in the simple and perfect forms (plays, played, has played, had played)
as well as the continuous or progressive forms (is playing, was playing, has been playing, had been playing).
DYNAMIC verb type examples
play activity She plays tennis every Friday.
She's playing tennis right now.
melt process The snow melts every spring.
The snow is melting right now.
Stative verbs
Stative verbs usually refer to a state or condition which is quite static or unchanging. They can be divided into verbs of perception
or cognition (which refer to things in the mind), or verbs of relation (which describe the relationships between things).
We CANNOT use these verbs in the continuous (progressive) forms.
Here are some examples:
STATIVE verb type examples
hate perception I hate chocolate.
believe perception She believes in UFOs.
contain relation The box contains 24 cans of soda.
own relation Yong owns three motorbikes.
Note again that we CANNOT use these verbs in the continuous (progressive) forms;
you CAN'T say "*Yong is owning three cars." Owning is a state, not an action, so it is always in the simple form.
Example verbs
Here some common stative and dynamic verbs. The lists may help you to understand what types of verbs are likely to be stative and what types are commonly dynamic.
Stative Verbs | love; hate; like; see; hear; sound; think (meaning "have an opinion"); mind (meaning "care about"); recognize; seem; have (meaning "own"); prefer; doubt; consist of; mean |
---|---|
Dynamic Verbs | eat; drink; go; type; read; write; listen; speak; watch; say; grow; work; sleep; cook; talk |
Topic 2: Stative and Dynamic Verbs (TASKS)
Topic 4: Present Simple vs Present Continuous
**** Present Simple (sadašnja radnja koje se ponavlja u određenim
vremenskim intervalima) is used to express:
- habits
He drinks tea at breakfast.
She only eats fish.
They watch television regularly. - repeated actions or events
We catch the bus every morning.
It rains every afternoon in the hot season.
They drive to Monaco every summer. - general truths
Water freezes at zero degrees.
The Earth revolves around the Sun.
Her mother is Peruvian.
- instructions or directions
Open the packet and pour the contents into hot water.
You take the No.6 bus to Watney and then the No.10 to Bedford.
DON'T FORGET:
Third person singular: ending -s or -es on the main verb (-es for the verbs ending in -o, -ch, -sh, -s, -x).
* Interrogative (upitni) and negative (odrični) form: We use auxiliary verb do - do (I, you, we, you, they) or does (he,she, it).
When we use does, main verb loses its ending (-s or -es).
She works in a post office.
Does she work in a post office?
She doesn't work in a post office.
* Contractions: doesn't, don't.
Present Simple signal words:
- always
- every ...
- often
- normally
- usually
- sometimes
- seldom
- never
****Present Continuous (sadašnja radnja koje se odvija u ograničenom vremenskom periodu tj.
u trenutku kada o njoj govorimo ili neki kraći ili duži vremenski period) is used to :
1: First, we use the present continuous for things that are happening at the moment of speaking.
- I'm working at the moment.
- Please call back as we are eating dinner now.
- Julie is sleeping.
- John's working in a bar until he finds a job in his field. (He might not be working now.)
- I'm reading a really great book.
- She's staying with her friend for a week.
- I work in a school. (I think this is a permanent situation.)
- I'm working in a school. (I think this is a temporary situation.)
- He's eating a lot these days.
- She's swimming every morning (she didn't use to do this).
- You're smoking too much.
- You're forever losing your keys!
- She's constantly missing the train.
- Lucy's always smiling!
5: The next use is for definite future arrangements (with a future time word). In this case we have already
- I'm meeting my father tomorrow.
- We're going to the beach at the weekend.
- I'm leaving at three.
DON'T FORGET:
* Auxiliary verb: to be (am,are,is).
* Ending: -ing (on a main verb).
* Contractions: isn't, aren't.
* Example: You are still working for the same company.
Are you still working for the same company?
You aren't still working for the same company.
Topic 3: Present Simple vs Present Continuous (Tasks)
Present: explain - He drives a truck. vs He is driving a truck. a)
b) complete -
b1) I have to change my shoes. These _ me. I'm sure I have a blister. (kill)
b2) The company _ its offices to a bigger building next month. (move)
b3 ) Water __ at 100 degrees. (boil)
b4) She __ better and better in learning English. (get)
b5) She has a tough job. She ____ late hours. (work)
Task 2: Check Your Understanding!
1. Which answer is the best?
Can you go downtown with me right now?
- No, I'm waiting for a phone call.
- No, I eat lunch.
- No, I take care of my son.
2. Which answer is the best?
How often do you drive to school?
- I'm often driving to school every morning.
- I'm never driving to school.
- I drive to school every morning.
3. Which question is the best?
- Is he waiting for the bus on the corner every day?
- Does he usually brush his teeth after breakfast?
- Is he often going to the park on Sunday?
4. Which sentence is the best?
- I'm usually brushing my teeth every morning.
- He's learning how to drive this month.
- I don't eat breakfast this morning.
5. Which sentence is the best?
- Is she liking to go shopping?
- I'm hating to drink coffee.
- They hate to get to school late.
6. Which sentence is the best?
- I'm smelling the milk now, and it doesn't smell bad.
- The soup is tasting good.
- The house is smelling very good when the cake is baking.
7. Which answer is the best?
What are you doing now?
- I'm tasting the soup to see if it needs more salt.
- I taste the spaghetti to see if it needs more salt.
- The spaghetti is tasting good.
8. Which sentence is the best?
- I'm knowing that he came yesterday.
- I'm thinking of taking a vacation.
- "Enormous" is meaning "big."
9. Which sentence is the best?
- They are having a nice house.
- She usually isn't having a good time shopping.
- We don't have a lot of fun going to the dentist.
10. Which sentence is the best?
- This coat is seeming really expensive.
- I don't think it's very expensive. It is only costing twenty dollars.
- I think it costs two hundred dollars.
Task 3: Complete the sentences with the appropriate form of
the verbs in brackets (choose between Present Simple and
Present Continuous)
- I'm in Paris because I ___________ French at a language school (STUDY).
- At the moment Cynthia ___________ on the floor with her doll (LIE)
- I usually ___________ as a secretary (WORK)
- I hate living in Seattle because it always __________ there (RAIN).
- I am sorry I can't hear what you __________ because everyone __________ so loudly (SAY, TALK)
- Jack ___________________ about his adventures in Tibet (CURRENTLY WRITE)
- _____________ to come over for dinner tonight ? (YOU WANT)
- Look, I ___________ two tickets for the circus (HAVE)
- Look, I ___________two tickets for the circus (HOLD)
- Where _______________ (you /STAY) ? In which hotel?
- Compaq ____________ computers but it __________ cars. (MAKE, NOT MAKE)
- At the moment , the yen _____________ against the dollar. (FALL)
- Computers ___________ more an more popular these days. (BECOME)
- John __________________ mistakes in spelling. (CONSTANTLY / MAKE)
- Everybody ____________ money. It is very important. (NEED)
- This milk _____________ fresh. (NOT TASTE)
- This afternoon I ______________ my doctor about my skin problem. (SEE)
- How are you today? Your voice ____________ much better now. (SOUND)
- She normally __________ all the Harry Potter books, but right now I _________ she _________ something else (READ, THINK, READ)
- It is strange that people __________ some movies so seriously (TAKE)
- What ___________________________ for a living . - Well he is a market consultant (YOUR DAD, DO)
- She ________________________ stupid questions.That's really annoying. (ALWAYS / ASK)
Task 4:
Fill in the simple present or present progressive form of the verb in brackets.
Local-born teen carries torch in global relay
Some teenagers _________ (be) too busy thinking about themselves to worry about world issues. But David
Morrison is not your average teenager. Instead of spending his summer vacation on the baseball diamond or
at the pool, the 14-year-old__________ (run).
Task 5.
Form
Present Progressive
Write the ing-form of the following verbs.
- fly -
- book -
- hit -
- take -
- lie -
Simple Present
Write the 3rd person singular of the following verbs (in Simple Present).
- do - he
- worry - she
- play - she
- watch - he
- might - she
Use
When to use which tense?
- Which tense do you have to use with the following signal words: Look!, now? ___________________
- Which tense do you have to use with the following signal words: often, seldom, never? __________
- For actions set by a timetable or schedule, we use ___________
- In a story, for present actions happening one after another, we use __________
- For arrangements for the near future, we use _____________
- For actions happening at the moment of speaking, we use _______________
Topic 5: Past Simple vs Past Continuous
**** Past Simple (radnja koja je počela i završila u prošlosti)
is used to express:
- something that happened once in the past:
I met my wife in 1983.
We went to Spain for our holidays.
They got home very late last night.
- something that happened again and again in the past:
When I was a boy I walked a mile to school every day.
We swam a lot while we were on holiday.
They always enjoyed visiting their friends.
- something that was true for some time in the past:
I lived abroad for ten years.
He enjoyed being a student.
She played a lot of tennis when she was younger.
- we often use phrases with ago with the past tense:
I met my wife a long time ago.
Topic 4: Past Simple vs Past Continuous (Tasks)
Task 1: Past Simple (regular verbs)
start started
help
wash
live
arrive
study
cry
play
enjoy
stop
plan
agree
borrow
Task 2: Past Simple (irregular verbs)
take took
be
steal
break
begin
win
meet
shrink
spill
swear
think
throw
forget
catch
weep
know
feed
hide
cut
- yesterday.
- last week, month....
- a month ago.
- in 2010.
- this morning
**** Past Continuous (fokusiramo se na trenutak ili ograničeno vrijeme u prošlosti)
is used to describe:
A) what we were doing at a specific point in the past
Compare these two sentences:
'I played golf yesterday.' = (past simple) the action of playing golf
is more important than the time it was happening.
'I was playing golf at 2pm.' = (past continuous) what was happening at
that specific time is important. We do not know when the action started ,
or when it finished.
FORM: -- Auxiliary verb to be in past simple form (was, were)
--- Main verb in - ing form
I was sleeping. They were watching TV.
Interrupted Action in the Past
Use the past continuous to indicate that a longer action in the past was interrupted. The
interruption is usually a shorter action in the simple past. Remember this can be a real
interruption or just an interruption
in time.
Examples:
- I was watching TV when she called.
- When the phone rang, she was writing a letter.
- While we were having the picnic, it started to rain.
- What were you doing when the earthquake started?
- I was listening to my iPod, so I didn't hear the fire alarm.
- You were not listening to me when I told you to turn the oven off.
- While John was sleeping last night, someone stole his car.
- Sammy was waiting for us when we got off the plane.
- While I was writing the email, the computer suddenly went off.
- A: What were you doing when you broke your leg?
- B: I was snowboarding.
Can you see a difference in the meaning of these two sentences?
When the guests arrived, Jane was cooking dinner.
When the guests arrived, Jane cooked dinner.
In the first one, Jane started cooking dinner before the guests arrived.
We know that because it uses the past continuous.
In the second sentence, the guests arrived first and then Jane started cooking.
Interrupted action in the past (Past simple and Past continuous in the same sentence)
While I was doing my science project, my mother came in with a surprise for me.
Actions take place one after another (Past simple for all verbs)
I finished my science project and then my mom came in and told me the surprise is ready.
Parallel actions
The Past Continuous is used to indicate that two actions were happening at the same time; hence parallel actions.
I was watching TV while the children were playing outside.
Were you listening while Kevin was explaining the new policy?
While Sarah was speaking to Fred, Peter was trying to get her attention.
What were they doing while you were working?
We were discussing the new project and having a good time as well.
Describing a mood/atmosphere
We can use the Past Continuous to describe several actions happening at the same time to describe the atmosphere or situation before or as a main action occurs.
When I walked into the bar, Danny and Fred were arguing again. Chris was chatting to the barman with his usual pint. Peter and Sarah were flirting with each other and Liz was telling the rest of the gang one of her outrageous stories about when she was an actress in the West End. The pub was already smelling of pub food and beer and I just felt that it was so good to be home.
Repetition – irritation with 'always'
The Past Continuous with words such as 'always' or 'constantly' indicates something repeated or irritating. Words like 'always' should be placed between the auxiliary 'be' and the present participle.
She was always coming late for meetings. No wonder she was never promoted.
He was always boasting about his financial successes. It irritated us all no end.
I was constantly misplacing my glasses. It’s not a problem with contacts now.
While or when
With the Past Continuous sentences have clauses that start with ‘while’ or ‘when’. ‘While’ usually starts the clause with the Past Continuous, ‘when’ usually starts the clause with the Past Simple.
It started raining while I was jogging. / While I was jogging, it started raining.
When it started raining, I was jogging. / I was jogging when it started raining.
Notice that although the meaning of each pair of sentences is the same, 'while' or 'when' shift emphasis.
Past : c) explain - I watched television. vs I was watching television.
explain - Before her sixth birthday she had never been to the zoo.
vs
She opened her birthday presents and then the whole family went
to the zoo.
d) complete -
d1) Can you tell me what ___ at 11 o'clock last night? (you / do)
d2) We ____ few days with our cousins this summer. (spend)
d3) Why didn't you call? I ____ for you. (wait)
d4) ______ a good time? (you / have)
d5) Who ____ you how to play table tennis? (teach)
e) complete and explain -
e1 ) When I ________ (leave) the house,it _______ (snow).
e2) I ________ (see) you while I _________(cross) the street.
e3) I _______ (pack) my things, ________(take) my keys
and _______ (go out).
e4) I __________(listen) while he __________ (talk).
e5) Why did you disagree with me at the meeting? _____________
________ (you / try) to make me look incompetent?
e6) I always _____________ (walk), even when it rained.
e7) Last night I _____________ (work) on my thesis and it took me a while
to realise that my phone was ringing.
e8) While she ________________ (prepare) her project I ______________
(play) my favourite PC game.
Topic 6: used to + infinitive & would+infinitive
'Used to + infinitive':
We use this expression to talk about habits or repeated actions in the past which
we don't do in the present. We also use it to talk about states in the past which
are no longer true. For example:
- I used to have long hair (but now I have short hair).
- He used to smoke (but now he doesn't smoke).
- They used to live in India (but now they live in Germany).
Watch out! With the negative and the question it's 'use' and not 'used':
- Did you use to be a teacher?
- Did he use to study French?
- She didn't use to like chocolate, but she does now.
- I didn't use to want to have a nice house.
Note! With this 'used to' there is no verb 'be'. We CAN'T say 'I am used to have long hair'.
'Would + infinitive'
We can also use 'would + infinitive' to talk about a habit or repeated action in the past.
We usually use 'would + infinitive' in this way when we're telling a story about the past. So, we can say:
- When I was a student, we would often have a drink after class on a Friday.
- When I lived in Italy, we would go to a little restaurant near our house.
However, we don't use 'would + infinitive' to talk about states in the past. So, if we're talking about the past, we CAN'T say:
I would have long hair.I would live in Scotland.
Topic 7: Present Perfect Simple
Form:
----- irregular verbs: form of 'have' + 3rd column of irregular verbs
- Example:
- I / you / we / they have spoken
- he / she / it has spoken
----- regular verbs: form of 'have' + infinitive + ed
- Example:
- I / you / we / they have worked
- he / she / it has worked
Use:
We use this tense for unfinished and finished actions.
Unfinished Actions
1: We use this tense when we want to talk about unfinished actions or states or habits that started
in the past and continue to the present. Usually we use it to say 'how long' and we need 'since' or 'for'.
We often use stative verbs.
- I've known Karen since 1994.
- She's lived in London for three years.
- I've worked here for six months.
'Since' and 'For'
We use 'since' with a fixed time in the past (2004, April 23rd, last year). The fixed time can be another action,
which is in the past simple (since I was at school, since I arrived).
- I've known Sam since 1992.
- I've liked chocolate since I was a child.
- She's been here since 2pm.
We use 'for' with a period of time (2 hours, three years, six months).
- I've known Julie for ten years.
- I've been hungry for hours.
- She's had a cold for a week.
Finished Actions
2: Life experience. These are actions or events that happened sometime during a person's life.
We don't say when the experience happened, and the person needs to be alive now. We often use
the words 'ever' and 'never' here.
- I have been to Tokyo.
- They have visited Paris three times.
- We have never seen that film.
3: With an unfinished time word (this month, this week, today). The period of time is still continuing.
- I haven't seen her this month.
- She's drunk three cups of coffee today.
- I've already moved house twice this year!
We CAN'T use the present perfect with a finished time word.
- NOT:
I've seen him yesterday.
4: A finished action with a result in the present (focus on result). We often use the present
perfect to talk about something that happened in the recent past, but that is still true or
important now. Sometimes we can use the past simple here, especially in US English.
- I've lost my keys (so I can't get into my house).
- She's hurt her leg (so she can't play tennis today).
- They've missed the bus (so they will be late).
5: We can also use the present perfect to talk about something that happened recently, even
if there isn't a clear result in the present. This is common when we want to introduce news and
we often use the words 'just / yet / already / recently'. However, the past simple is also correct
in these cases, especially in US English.
- The Queen has given a speech.
- I've just seen Lucy.
- The Mayor has announced a new plan for the railways.
Just, yet, still, already
These words are often used with the present perfect tense although yet, still and already
can all be used with other tenses.
Just
‘Just’ is usually used only with the present perfect tense and it means ‘a short time ago’.
- I’ve just seen Susan coming out of the cinema.
- Mike’s just called. Can you ring him back please?
- Have you just taken my pen? Where has it gone?
In the present perfect, ‘just’ comes between the auxiliary verb (‘have’) and the past participle.
Yet
‘Yet’ is used to talk about something which is expected to happen. It means ‘at any time up to now’.
It is used in questions and negatives.
- Have you finished your homework yet? The speaker expects that the homework will be finished.
- I haven’t finished it yet. I’ll do it after dinner.
‘Yet’ usually comes at the end of the sentence.
Still
‘Still’ is used to talk about something that hasn’t finished – especially when we expected it to finish earlier.
- I’ve been waiting for over an hour and the bus still hasn’t come.
- You promised to give me that report yesterday and you still haven’t finished it.
‘Still’ usually comes in ‘mid-position’
Still is often used with other tenses as well as the present perfect.
- I’ve still got all those letters you sent me.
- Are you still working in the bookshop?
Already
‘Already’ is used to say that something has happened early – or earlier than it might have happened.
- I’ve already spent my salary and it’s two weeks before pay day.
- The train’s already left! What are we going to do?
‘Already’ usually comes in mid-position.
Topic 8: Present Perfect Continuous
Form:
----- form of 'have' + been + verb + ing
- Example:
- I / you / we / they have been speaking
- he / she / it has been speaking
Use:
We use this tense for unfinished and finished actions.
Unfinished Action
1: To say how long for unfinished actions which started in the past and continue to the present.
We often use this with 'for' and 'since' (see the the present perfect simple page for more about 'for' and 'since').
- I've been living in London for two years.
- She's been working here since 2004.
- We've been waiting for the bus for hours.
This use is very similar to how we use the present perfect simple, and often it's possible to use either tense.
Of course, with stative verbs, we can't use the present perfect continuous.
- I've been here for hours.
- NOT:
I've been being here for hours.
2: For temporary habits or situations. The action started in the past and continues to the present in the same
way as with use number 1, but we don't answer the questions about 'how long' so clearly.
Instead, we use a word like 'recently'.
- I've been going to the gym a lot recently.
- They've been living with his mother while they look for a house.
- I've been reading a lot recently.
This is very similar to the use of the present continuous for temporary habits and often either
tense is possible.
Finished action
3: Actions which have recently stopped (though the whole action can be unfinished) and have a result,
which we can often see, hear, or feel, in the present. We don't use a time word here.
- I'm so tired, I've been studying.
- I've been running, so I'm really hot.
- It's been raining so the pavement is wet.
The present perfect simple has a very similar use, which focuses on the result of the action, whereas
the present perfect continuous focuses on the action itself.
- I've been working here for eight years.
- ‘How long has he been playing basketball?’ ‘Since he was twelve years old.’
- ‘Why is your hair wet?’ ‘I've been swimming in the lake.’
- ‘Why is she tired?’ ‘She's been working hard all day.’
I've known Jack for five years.I've been knowing Jack for five years
f) complete and explain -
f1) I _________ (not think) of going to Italy before she
_______ (suggest) it.
f2) I can't believe she _______ (eat) my sandwich.
f3) We __________ (already / drink) all our water
before we ________ (realise) there ______ (not be)
any left.
f4) I ___________ (drink) all my water and then I
________ (go) back into the game.
f5) A: _____________ (your dog / rip) your dress?
B: Yes, he _______ (rip) it. I was so upset, I _________
(just / buy) it.
Topic 9: Present Perfect Simple vs Present Perfect Continuous
Both tenses are used to express that an action began in the past and is still going on or has just finished.
In many cases, both forms are correct, but there is often a difference in meaning: We use the Present
Perfect Simple mainly to express that an action is completed or to emphasise the result. We use the
Present Perfect Progressive to emphasise the duration or continuous course of an action.
Question # 1: Result or duration?
Do you want to express what has happened so far or how long an action has been going on yet?
Result (Present Perfect Simple)
Result (what / how much / how often)
I have written 5 letters. / I have been to London twice.
Duration (Present Perfect Continuous)
Duration (how long)
I have been writing for an hour.
Verbs that never are never used in the continuous form
The following verbs are usually only used in Present Perfect Simple (not in the progressive form).
- state: be, have (for possession only)
Example: We have been on holiday for two weeks.
- senses: feel, hear, see, smell, taste, touch
Example: He has touched the painting.
- brain work: believe, know, think, understand
Example: I have known him for 3 years.
Question # 2: Emphasis on completion or duration?
Do you want to emphasise the completion of an action or its continuous course
(how has somebody spent his time)?
Present Perfect Simple is used when we place.....
emphasis on completion
I have done my homework. (Meaning: My homework is completed now.)
Present Perfect Continuous is used when we place.....
Emphasis on duration
I have been doing my homework. (Meaning: That's how I have spent my time.
It does not matter whether the homework is completed now.)
Question # 3: Result or side effect?
Do you want to express that a completed action led to a desired result or that the action had an unwanted side effect?
Present Perfect Simple is used for.....
desired result
I have washed the car. (Result: The car is clean now.)
Present Perfect Continuous is used for.....
unwanted side effect
Why are you so wet? - I have been washing the car. (side effect:
I became wet when I was washing the car. It does not matter whether the car is clean now.)
Question # 4: Permanent or temporary?
If an action is still going on and we want to express that it is a permanent situation,
we would usually use the Present Perfect Simple. For temporary situations, we would
prefer the Present Perfect Progressive. This is not a rule, however, only a tendency.
Present Perfect Simple is used for.....
permanent
James has lived in this town for 10 years. (Meaning: He is a permanent resident of this town.)
Present Perfect Continuous is used for.....
temporary
James has been living here for a year. (Meaning: This situation is only temporary.
Maybe he is an exchange student and only here for one or two years.)
Signal words....
Present Perfect Simple vs Present Perfect Continuous
* focuses on the result * focuses on the activity
e.g You've cleaned the bathroom. e.g. I've been gardening.
It looks lovely. It's so nice out there.
* says "how many" * says "how long"
e.g. She's read ten books this summer. e.g. She's been reading that book all day.
* describes a completed action * describes an activity which may continue
e.g. I've written you an email. e.g. I've been writing emails.
* when we can see evidence of recent activity
e.g. The grass looks wet. Has it been raining?
I know, I'm really red. I've been running!Present perfect : g) explain - I bought a new car. vs I have bought a new car.
explain - I’ve been decorating the house this summer. vs
I’ve painted the living room blue.
g) complete - use Present Perfect Simple / Continuous or Past Simple:
g1) We __________ dinner. (already / prepare)
g2) How long ________ (she / work ) here? For thirty years.
g3) I usually work in London but I ___ in Birmingham for the last 3 weeks. (work)
g4) What ____________ while I was out? (you / do)
g5) Sarah ___________ (do) a lot of great things for our
organisation since we _______ (hire) her.
g6) A: You look tired. B: Yes. I ___________ (run) a lot.
g7) Who _________ (tell) you what happened?
g8) She _________ (fly) twice so far, and she _______ (tell) me it is a
great experience.
g9) Sam __________ (live) in the same house since he _____ (be) born.
g10) I ____________ (not see) new James Bond movie yet.
g11) A: When _____________ (you / eat) sushi for the first time?
B: I think I ______ (eat) it when I _______ (be) 11.
In fact, it _____ (be) so good that we _______ (be) to that
restaurant three times since then. And on my mum's birthday, we
ordered some sushi and _____ (have) it at home.
g12) He ____________ (not finish) his homework because he
________ (watch) television for the last two hours.
Topic 10: Future
All of the following ideas can be expressed using different tenses:
- Simple prediction: There will be snow in many areas tomorrow.
- Arrangements: I'm meeting Jim at the airport.
- Plans and intentions: We're going to spend the summer abroad.
- Time-tabled events: The plane takes off at 3 a.m.
- Prediction based on present evidence: The sky is black, it's going to rain!
- Willingness or decisions that we make at the moment of speaking: We'll give you a lift to the cinema. / I'll help you.
- Objective truth: In 2028 the Svalbard Vault will celebrate its 20th anniversary.
- An action in progress in the future: This time next week I'll be sun-bathing.
- An action or event that is a matter of routine: You'll be seeing John in the office tomorrow, won't you?
- Obligation: You are to travel directly to London.
- An action or event that will take place immediately or very soon: The train is about to leave.
- Projecting ourselves into the future and looking back at a completed action: A month from now he will have finished all his exams.
8a) Future (with Present simple)
8b) Future (with Present continuous)
8c) Future (with will)
8d) Future (with going to)
8e) Future continuous
When we know about the future we normally use the present tense.
- 8a) We use the present simple for something scheduled or arranged:
We have a lesson next Monday.
The train arrives at 6.30 in the morning.
The holidays start next week.
It is my birthday tomorrow.
- 8b) We can use the present continuous for plans or arrangements.
I’m playing football tomorrow.
They are coming to see us tomorrow.
We’re having a party at Christmas.
The present continuous is used to talk about arrangements for events at a time later than now.
There is a suggestion that more than one person is aware of the event, and that some preparation
has already happened. e.g.
- I'm meeting Jim at the airport = Jim and I have discussed this.
- I am leaving tomorrow. = I've already bought my train ticket.
- We're having a staff meeting next Monday = all members of staff have been told about it.
8c) We use will to talk about the future:
- When we make predictions:
It will be a nice day tomorrow.
I think Brazil will win the World Cup.
I’m sure you will enjoy the film.
- To mean want to or be willing to:
I hope you will come to my party.
George says he will help us.
- To make offers and promises:
I'll see you tomorrow.
We'll send you an email.
- To talk about offers and promises:
Tim will be at the meeting.
Mary will help with the cooking.
- Decisions that we take at the moment of speaking:
I'll have a cup of tea.
Where can I find more information? I know. I'll look on the Internet.
- To talk about an objective truth:
In 2028 the Svalbard Vault will celebrate its 20th anniversary.
It's my birthday next month. I'll be seventeen.
8d) We use (be) going to:
- To talk about plans and intentions:
I’m going to drive to work today.
They are going to move to Manchester.
- When we can see (or have evidence) that something is likely to happen.
Be careful! You are going to fall.
Look at those black clouds. I think it’s going to rain.
8e) We use future continuous (will be + /verb/ing )
The future continuous refers to an unfinished action or event that will be in progress at a
time later than now. The future continuous is used for quite a few different purposes.
a) The future continuous can be used to project ourselves into the future.
Examples
- This time next week I will be sun-bathing in Bali.
- By Christmas I will be skiing like a pro.
- Just think, next Monday you will be working in your new job.
b) The future continuous can be used for predicting or guessing about future events.
Examples
- He'll be coming to the meeting, I expect.
- I guess you'll be feeling thirsty after working in the sun.
- You'll be missing the sunshine once you're back in England.
c) In the interrogative form, the future continuous can be used to ask politely for information
about the future.
Examples
- Will you be bringing your friend to the pub tonight?
- Will Jim be coming with us?
- Will she be going to the party tonight?
- Will I be sleeping in this room?
d) The future continuous can be used to refer to continuous events that we expect
to happen in the future.
Examples
- I'll be seeing Jim at the conference next week.
- When he is in Australia he will be staying with friends.
- I'll be eating with Jane this evening so I can tell her.
e) When combined with still, the future continuous refers to events that are already happening
now and that we expect to continue some time into the future.
Examples
- In an hour I'll still be ironing my clothes.
- Tomorrow he'll still be suffering from his cold.
- Next year will she still be wearing a size six?
- Won't stock prices still be falling in the morning?
- Unfortunately, sea levels will still be rising in 20 years.
Topic 11: Past Perfect Simple
Functions of the past perfect
The past perfect refers to a time earlier than before now. It is used to make it clear that one event happened
before another in the past. It does not matter which event is mentioned first - the tense makes it clear which
one happened first. In these examples, Event A is the event that happened first and Event B is the second
or more recent event:
Event A | Event B |
John had gone out | when I arrived in the office. |
Event A | Event B |
I had saved my document | before the computer crashed. |
Event B | Event A |
When they arrived | we had already started cooking. |
Event B | Event A |
He was very tired | because he hadn't slept well. |
Forming the past perfect
The Past Perfect tense in English is composed of two parts: the past tense of the verb to have (had) +
the past participle of the main verb.
e.g.
Affirmative | ||
She | had | given |
Negative | ||
She | hadn't | asked. |
Interrogative | ||
Had | they | arrived? |
Interrogative Negative | ||
Hadn't | you | finished? |
Past perfect + just
'Just' is used with the past perfect to refer to an event that was only a short time earlier than before now, e.g.
- The train had just left when I arrived at the station.
- She had just left the room when the police arrived.
- I had just put the washing out when it started to rain.
Use
We use Simple Past if we give past events in the order in which they occured. However, when we
look back from a certain time in the past to tell what had happened before, we use Past Perfect.
Normal order in the past or looking back to an event before a certain time in the past?
Do you just want to tell what happened some time in the past or do you want to tell what had
happened before/up to a certain time in the past?
Simple Past | Past Perfect Simple |
---|---|
some time in the past
|
before/up to a certain time in the past
|
Signal Words
Simple Past | Past Perfect Simple |
---|---|
|
|
*Note: "After" is only used as a signal word for Past Perfect if it is followed by a subject + verb, meaning that
one action had been completed before another action began (the new action is in Simple Past).
- Example:
- After the family had had breakfast, they went to the zoo.
However, if "after" is followed by object + subject + verb, the verb belongs to the new action and is therefore in Simple Past.
- Example:
- After her visit to the zoo, Jane was exhausted.
More exceptions with signal words
When
Depending on the situation, "when" can be used with Simple Past or Past Perfect. Compare the following examples:
- Example:
- When Jane saw the elephants, she was amazed. (at the same time)
- When Jane had seen the elephants, she wanted to see the giraffes. (second action happened after the first action had been completed)
- When Jane went to see the elephants, she had already seen the lions. (second action had been completed when the first action took place)
Before
"Before" as well can either be used with Simple Past or Past Perfect. If the action after "before" is a new action, use Simple Past. If the action after "before" started (and was not completed) before a certain time in the past, use Past Perfect. Compare the following examples:
- Example:
- Jane had read a lot about elephants before she went to the zoo.
- Jane went to the zoo before she had finished reading her new book about elephants.
Topic 12: Conditionals (Conditional sentences)
Conditionals (Kondicionali) - Conditional sentences (Kondicionalne rečenice)
There are four different types of conditional sentences in English. Each expresses a different degree of probability
that a situation will occur or would have occurred under certain circumstances. Each conditional sentences
consists of if clause and main clasue. If clause is dependent and main clause is independent.
- Zero Conditional Sentences
- First Conditional Sentences
- Second Conditional Sentences
- Third Conditional Sentences
First conditional sentences are used to express situations in which the outcome is likely (but not guaranteed)
to happen in the future. It depends on the condition in if clause. Look at the examples below:
We use the simple present tense in the if-clause and simple future tense in the main clause—that is,
the clause that expresses the likely outcome. This is how we indicate that under a certain condition
(as expressed in the if-clause), a specific result will likely happen in the future.
Second conditional sentences are useful for expressing outcomes that are completely unrealistic or will not
likely happen in the future. Look at the examples below:
We use the simple past tense in the if-clause and an auxiliary modal verb (e.g., could, should, would, might) in the main clause
Third conditional sentences are used to explain that present circumstances would be different if something different had
happened in the past. Look at the following examples:
These sentences express a condition that was likely enough, but did not actually happen in the past. The speaker
in the first sentence was capable of leaving early, but did not. Along these same lines, the speaker in the second
sentence was capable of cleaning the house, but did not. These are all conditions that were likely, but regrettably
did not happen.
We use the past perfect (i.e., had + past participle) in the if-clause.
The modal auxiliary (would, could, should, etc.) + have + past participle in the main clause expresses
the theoretical situation that could have happened.
Zero conditional sentences express general truths—situations in which one thing always causes another.
When you use a zero conditional, you’re talking about a general truth rather than a specific instance of
something. Look at the following examples:
When using the zero conditional, the correct tense to use in both clauses is the simple present tense.
It is incorrect to use will (the simple future tense).
When people smoke cigarettes, their health suffers. (CORRECT)
Notice that the words if and when can be used interchangeably in these zero conditional sentences.
This is because the outcome will always be the same, so it doesn’t matter “if” or “when” it happens.
Topic 13: Active vs Passive Voice
"Voice" is a grammatical category that applies to verbs.
Voice in English expresses the relationship of the subject to the action.
Voice has two values:
- active: the subject does the action
- passive: the object receives the action
How do we make the passive?
The basic structure of a passive clause is very simple:
1) OBJECT (from the sentence in Active voice) +
2) auxuliary verb to be (takes the form of the Active sentence) +
3) main verb of the Active sentence (in past participle form) +
4) by Agent (this is sometimes omitted)
Present Simple Passive:
Active: Construction workers build houses.
Passive: Houses are built by construction workers.
Past Simple Passive:
Jack took my school bag.
My school bag was taken by Jack.
Future (will) Passive:
Somebody will clean the room.
The room will be cleaned.
Present Continuous Passive:
Mike is mending his bike.
Mike's bike is being mended.
Topic 14: Reported Speech
If we want to say what somebody has said, we have two options:
- We can use the person's exact words - in quotation marks "..." if we are writing (direct speech).
- We can change the person's words into our own words (reported speech).
We usually introduce reported statements with "reporting verbs" such as "say" or "tell":
- He said (that)...
- He told me (that)...
When we use our own words to report speech, there are one or two things that we sometimes change:
- pronouns may need to change to reflect a different perspective
- tense sometimes has to go back one tense (eg, present becomes past) - this is called backshift
He said that...
He said...
He told me that...
He told me...
He mentioned that...
He informed me that...
- John just said that he is hungry.
But if yesterday John said "I am hungry" and I am now telling his sister,
I would likely use backshift:
- Yesterday, John said that he was hungry.
[We hope that John has eaten since yesterday ;-) ]
So we use backshift SOMETIMES but not always. And WHEN we use backshift,
here's how it works with these common tenses and modals:
Backshift
present simple goes back to past simple
present continuous goes back to past continuous
past simple goes back to past perfect simple
present perfect simple goes back to past perfect simple
past continuous goes back to past perfect continuous
can goes back to could
may goes back to might
We NEVER use backshift when the original words are:
- past perfect
- could
- might
- would
- should
DON'T FORGET:
- If a situation is still true, backshift is optional.
- For a general truth there is no need for backshift.
Step 3 - Time and place
Time words
If we report something around the same time, then we probably do not
need to make any changes to time words. But if we report something
at a different time, we need to change time words.
- He said: "It was hot yesterday." → He said that it had been hot the day before.
- He said: "We are going to swim tomorrow." → He said they were going to swim the next day.
Here is a list of common time words, showing how you change them for reported speech:
direct speech | reported speech |
---|---|
now | then, at that time |
today | that day, on Sunday, yesterday |
tonight | that night, last night, on Sunday night |
tomorrow | the next day/ the following day, on Sunday, today |
yesterday | the day before/ the previous day, on Sunday |
last night | the night before/ the previous night, on Sunday night |
this week | that week, last week |
last month | the month before/ the previous month, in May |
next year | the following year, in 2014 |
two minutes ago | two minutes before |
in one hour | one hour later |
Place words
If we are in the same place when we report something, then we do
not need to make any changes to place words. But if we are in a
different place when we report something, then we need to
change the place words.
- He said: "It is cold in here." → He said that it was cold in there.
- He said: "How much is this book?" → He asked how much the book was.
direct speech | indirect speech |
---|---|
here | there, in Starbucks |
this | that |
this book | the book, that book, War and Peace |
in this room | in the room, in that room, in the kitchen |
Topic 15: Mixed Tenses
Maria (want) _______________ to improve her English. Therefore, she (do) ______________ a language course in London .
She (stay) _______________ with a host family and (must) ___________ take the tube to get to her language school.
It (be) _________ only a five-minute walk to the nearest tube station. The tube (leave) ____________ at half past eight.
The first lesson (begin) __________ at 9 o'clock.
In the afternoons, the school (offer) _____________ sightseeing tours in and around London.
Tomorrow, the students of the language school (go) ____________ to Windsor.
1b) Grammar - part 2:
Discourse markers
Choose the correct word for each sentence - each is only used once.
moreover on the other hand at least however
besides firstly whereas then
actually though
1. I had a terrible day at work and lost my umbrella too. I spoke to that nice
guy who works in the coffee shop at last!
2. Television turns people into lazy couch potatoes. , there are some educational
programmes on.
3. , I would like to welcome you all to the conference today.
4. the film was a little boring, we still had a nice evening out.
5. I've always known Caroline as a mean person. , she lent me $10 yesterday
without me having to ask twice!
6. I got up at 9 o'clock yesterday and had a cold shower. , I had breakfast and
left for work.
7. My brother works in a large office I work on my own at home.
8. Why do you think I don't want to go out tonight. , I would be
delighted to get out of the house.
9. You should go to university as it gives you a chance to meet so many new
people. , it gives you the chance to get important qualifications and get a better job.
10. I don't want to go to the football game. Football bores me and I don't want to pay $40
for a ticket. , look at the weather! All that rain!
Compound nouns
You need to construct compound nouns from these words in the box below to fill in the
gaps in the sentences. Some of the words are used twice, but in a different order!
All answers should be entered as two separate words.
window reading seat pub day
phone child light fishing card
table food frame work boat
1. I only have coins on me and that's a card phone. I will have to see if there is a public
phone in that bar.
2. I want to put a in the car as they say it really makes toddlers safer
while driving.
3. John was furious with the airline company. He sat on that plane for 14 hours and
his didn't work. He couldn't even finish that novel he was reading during
the flight. He had to try and sleep.
4. "What type of credit card is that?" "That's not a credit card. That's a
I use it once a week to call my mum back home in New Zealand."
5. All the in this house have to be repainted. Otherwise, they will rot
over the winter and then we may not be able to open the windows in the spring.
6. English restaurants have a terrible reputation, but the is very
tasty.
7. I worked at night for so long that when I finally started to do some ,
I found it really strange.
8. A sank off the Spanish coast last night. Both fishermen were saved
by the coast guard.
9. I know that Monday is a holiday for everyone else, but for us it's a normal .
We have to get this project finished by Wednesday!
10. Why do you have a in the middle of your lounge? I keep feeling tempted
to go up to the bar to order drinks!!
1c) English idioms:
English idioms, proverbs, and expressions are an important part of everyday English.
They come up all the time in both written and spoken English. Because idioms don't always
make sense literally (if you consider each word separately), you'll need to familiarize yourself
with the meaning and usage of each idiom. That may seem like a lot of work, but learning
idioms is fun, especially when you compare English idioms to the idioms in your own language.
NAPOMENA: NA DNU STRANICE MOŽETE SKINUTI ZA SEBE FAJL SA ODABRANIM IDIOMIMA!!!!
e.g.
Idiom Meaning Usage
A blessing in disguise a good thing that seemed bad at first as part of a sentence
It's not rocket science it's not complicated by itself
No pain, no gain You have to work for what you want by itself
Under the weather sick as part of a sentence
Cost an arm and a leg very expensive as part of a sentence
a snake in the grass one who pretends to be a friend as part of a sentence
but is not a true friend, wants to deceive
on clude nine extremely happy as part of a sentence
* Body Idioms (choose one for each space)
Chip on the shoulder Get it off your chest
Have the stomach for a fight Have your finger in many pies.
Have your head in the clouds Have your head screwed on straight
Head over heels in love Pig's ear
Head start Keep your chin up
Keep your ear to the ground Lip service
Look down your nose at people
1. Even if he gave you a _____________________ , he would still win. He's very fast!!
2. You have made a total _____________________ of that cake! We will have to start all
over again!!
3. If you are so worried and stressed about this problem, you should go and speak to your
boss and _____________________.
4. Look, I know it's been a terrible day, but try and _____________________. Your holidays
start next week.
5. _____________________and tell me if you find out something before I do.
6. He has always been considered a very wise, sensible person. He definitely _____________________.
7. I think she is totally besotted with him. She thinks about him all day and seems to be __________________.
8. First he started that company that makes sofas. Then he began selling computer software
and now he has started his own website. He has always _____________________.
9. I think the problem with Maggie is that she _____________________and thinks she is better
than anyone else. All because her father has so much money.
10. It's not that he doesn't like you Mike. He hates anyone who went to university. He has a
real _____________________about it!!
11. The manager acted very tough at the beginning of the dispute but, in the end,
didn't _____________________ once the workers called a strike.
12. He is not stupid. His problem is that his concentration is terrible and he spends most
of the day thinking about his crazy travel dreams. He _____________________.
13. I heard everything he said but it was all just _____________________. He didn't mean a
word of it and he doesn't care at all about this problem.
3a) Fajlovi za download:
Phrasal verbs 3rd y students.docx (57679)
Idioms 4th y students.doc (227328)